Imperial Roman Conquests and Coins

 

Rome's territorial conquests were synonymous with their expansion. These conquests were celebrated with magnificent displays like construction of monuments and mass celebrations. However, as not everyone lived in the capital or in major cities, the most efficient way to exhibit the achievements was through coinage. Coins could reach all parts of the Empire, allowing the population to familiarize with both the emperor and the conquests. While all the coins minted in Imperial Roman Empire played a role in promoting the emperor and his policies, the coins celebrated their conquests. These coins through carefully choosing both the sides of the coins, spoke the tale about Rome's triumph and superiority across the world.

                         

Bronze coin of Constantine I, showing personification of victory spurning captive, 323-324 AD

  

Aegypto Capta. These were the first Roman coins of conquest.

                         

Augustus, Denarius, silver, 28 BC, weight 3.6 gm, Obverse: Head of Augustus, right with inscription CAESAR COS (VI), Reverse: Crocodile standing right with inscription AEGVPTO CAPTA
 

The rich and powerful, ancient Egypt was a temptation for any conqueror. Romans had their plans on the ''gift of the Nile''. The weakening of the Ptolemaic Empire brought Rome closer to Egypt. Julius Caesar's death, led to the last war of the Roman Republic, between Mark Antony and Octavian. After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavian the sole ruler of the Roman world, and an emperor, Augustus. To mark this conquest, a series of gold and silver coinage was issued. The coin bears the ruler's portrait on the obverse and a crocodile (the Nile crocodile was a symbol of ancient Egypt) on the reverse, with AEGVPTO CAPTA (Egypt Captured) clearly visible.

                        

Dupondius minted in Nemausus city, with joint portraits of Augustus and Agrippa and crocodile tied to a palm branch on reverse, 9-3 BC, copper alloy, weight 13.1 gm with inscriptions IMP DIVI F on Obverse and COL NEM on Reverse.

Asia Recepta. Taking back Anatolia.

                         

Augustus, Quinarius, 29-27 BC, silver, Italy minted, weight 1.8 gm, Obverse: Augustus with inscription CAESAR IMP VII, Reverse: Victoria standing above the cista mystica, represents Augustus's victory over Mark Antony, legend ASIA RECEPTA, means Asia recovered. 

Among Mark Antony's former territories that came under Augustus's control was Anatolia, a wealthy and urbanized region full of towns that traced their origins to the Classical Greek period or beyond. Although this area was an integral part of Roman territory since 63 BC, yet Augustus, he decided to commemorate his takeover of Asia Minor with the special issue of a small Roman coin. The motif chosen was ''cista mystica'' flanked by two serpents and topped by the figure of victory. The cista mystica, the sacred casket containing a live snake, was a ritual object used in secret rites of Dionysus and was adopted by many Asian cities on their coins. The appearance on the Roman coins guaranteed the preservation of the Hellenistic town's rights and custom and a prosperous future under the new ruler.

Judaea Capta. 

                       

Vespasian, 69-79 AD, weight 25.4 gm, Obverse: Laureate head of Vespasian right with inscription IMP CAES VESPIAN AVG PM TR P P P COS, Reverse: IVDAEA CAPTA, C in exergue, emperor in military attire, standing right, resting foot on helmet set on ground, holding spear and parazonium, before him, palm tree beneath which Judaea seated right resting head on hands, in mourning
  

In August 70 AD, Roman legions stormed the Temple in Jerusalem, where the last rebel defenders of the city held out. The Jewish revolt was crushed. The Temple treasury had accumulated gold and silver for centuries, and the rich spoils of Jerusalem paid for the construction of the Colosseum in Rome. Emperor Vespasian's victory in the Jewish war is a major theme in coinage of his reign (69-79 AD) and that of Titus (71-81 AD).

Parthia Capta. Triumph in the East. 

                         

Trajan, Aureus, 114 AD, gold, weight 7.4 gm, Obverse: Bust of Trajan draped and cuirassed, with inscription IMP CAES NER TRAIANO OPTIM AVG GER DAC PARTHICO, translation, supreme commander Caesar, Nerva Trajan, best emperor (Augustus) conqueror of the Germans, conqueror of the Dacians, conqueror of the Parthians Reverse: Trophy between two Parthians seated left and right on ground, lettering and translation : High priest holder of tribunician power, consul for the sixth time, father of the nation, the senate and the Roman people, conquest of Parthia

There was one adversary Rome considered almost as an equal and that was Persia. Most would be conquerors found their doom after attacking Persia. One of the few Roman leaders who waged a successful campaign in the East was Emperor Trajan in his 115-117 AD campaign. Trajan captured territory till the shores of the Persian Gulf. To commemorate this achievement, he issued a special gold coin minted in 116 AD. However, Parthia would eventually recover continuing to trouble Rome for more than another century before being replaced by an even more dangerous Sassanid Empire.

Dacia Capta. Across the Danube. 

                         

Trajan, Denarius, 98-117 AD, weight 3.2 gm, Rome mint, Obverse: Laureate bust right, drapery on far shoulder, Reverse: Dacian wearing peaked cap, tunic and breeches, seated left on pile of arms in mourning, left foot on helmet, one round and one oblong shield on left two curved swords, on right two spears 

Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent. Trajan's campaign over the Danube got Rome new territory and gold mines of Dacia (modern day Romania). The conquest of Dacia, 101-102 BC and 105-106 BC was the last major territorial gains for the Romans. Although, the famous Trajan's Column was erected as a monumental pillar, coinage was minted too. Although several versions of the image were minted, the most powerful motif is the mourning personification of Dacia, seated on a pile of captured weapons.

Germania Capta. An Imaginary Conquest. 

                         

Domitian, 87 AD, bronze weight 27 gm, Obverse: Bust of Domitian, laureate, right with aegis, lettering translated to, Supreme commander, Caesar, Domitian, emperor (Augustus), Conqueror of the Germans, consul for the 13th time, censor for life, father of the nation, Reverse: Trophy flanked on left by Germania seated left, head on arm and on right by German captive standing right, head left, left hand on shield
 

For centuries, the Danube and Rhine Rivers formed the borders of the Roman Empire and across the waters were the area inhabited by the barbarian tribes, who periodically invaded the imperial lands. Whenever, Rome tried to push the boundary over the Rhine River, the result was a disaster. The area across was known as Germania Magna. While the Imperial army tried many times, these were punitive actions. However even a minor victory would have been good for propaganda. In 83 AD, Emperor Domitian led a military expedition into the Black Forest region. Little is known of his campaign and probably no territory was annexed, yet the emperor decided to commemorate the occasion. The Roman coin bears the legend GERMANIA CAPTA (Germania Captured) 

Sarmatia Devicta. The last Roman coin of conquest.

                         

Constantine I, Nummus, Sirmium, 324-325 AD, weight 3.2 gm, Obverse: Laureate head right, Reverse: SARMATIA DEVICTA, Victory advancing right, holding trophy and palm branch and spurning captive on ground to right
 

Instead of conquests, the third century saw Rome fighting for survival. ''The Third Century Crisis'' was a time when Rome was fighting external and internal enemies Emperor Aurelian unified the entire Roman Empire. The fourth century empire celebrated by issuing a coin in 323 AD, for conquest in the Western part of the empire. The bronze coin bearing the legend SARMATIA DEVICTA (Sarmatia Conquered) denotes victory of emperor Constantine over Sarmatians and the annexation of territory on the other side of Danube River. However, the area was soon abandoned as the open steppe was difficult to defend. 

Emperors continued to celebrate victories on coinage till the fall of the Roman Empire 

British Museum

Roman Coin with an Astronomical mystery discovered off Israel's coast

 

Israeli Antiquities Authority's Marine Archaeology Unit recently found a rare, 1877-year-old bronze coin with the Roman Moon Goddess Luna above a depiction of the zodiac sign Cancer (a crab). The coin was found off the Carmel Beach in Haifa. On the other side of the coin is the head of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius (131-161 AD) during whose reign it was minted.   In ancient Roman mythology, Luna is the deity representing the moon and she is best known for wearing a crescent as a crown and riding her chariot as she casts the darkness of the night. She is the female counterpart of her brother Sol, the personification of the sun.

                         

Rare bronze coin depicting Cancer the crab beneath the moon goddess Luna

Unit director Jacob Sharvit said, it was the first time such a coin has been found off Israel's coast, and this coin was found among a small hoard of other coins probably from a shipwreck. The coin was minted in Alexandria, Egypt, and is dated ''year eight'', or the eight year of Antoninus Pius's rule, or 144/145 AD. Pius's reign was well remembered, and historians note him as one of the ''Five Good Emperors'' alongside Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.                        

The Rare bronze coin depicting Cancer, the crab sign below goddess Luna on one side and Emperor Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius on the other side, bearing the date ''Year eight'' i.e. 144/145 AD

The coin in particular is no exception, with the writing telling us exactly when and where the coin was minted, but the interesting depiction on the coin sent the astronomical community into interesting research. This coin would have been part of a set of twelve, depicting the houses of the zodiac. David Dickinson, in an article published in ''Universe Today", Courtenay, BC, writes that he did begin to wonder if this depicted a real astronomical event, visible from the Mediterranean region in the times when the coin was minted. As no bright star exists in Cancer, he suspected it was actually a bright planet, say, Jupiter or Venus. He used the ''Occult 4.2 program'' and the planetarium program ''Stellarium'' (which takes into account the -26,000-year precession of the equinoxes and stellar proper motion over the centuries) and found one event that was specially intriguing: the dusk conjunction of the waxing crescent Moon and Jupiter on the evening of June 4th, 140 AD, in the sign of Cancer.

                         

Dusk looking west from the Mediterranean region on the evening of June 4th, 140 AD: Credit Stellarium

 

Not only did this occur in the reign of Antoninus Pius, but it would have been visible right before the death of his beloved wife Faustina the elder in 140 AD.  Perhaps the ancient coin commemorates her passing. Certainly, there is record of Pius's devotion to Faustina, and his subsequent campaign to deify her after death.                        

The Moon occults Jupiter, June 4th, 140 AD, Credit: Occult 4.2

Modern Astronomy has its roots in the archaic practice of astrology. Ancients watched the sky, noted what they saw and corelated them with actual events. There are many such examples. We remember the astrologer's admonition to Julius Caesar to beware the Ides of March (15th of March), the day he was brutally murdered. Under one possible scenario, a court astrologer could have assigned significance to the conjunction of Jupiter with the moon in Cancer, a portent that later moved a grieving Pius to commemorate the death of his wife, casting her as the Moon goddess Selene.                       

The base of column of Antoninus Pius in Rome, depicting Pius and Faustina, Credit: Saiko/Wikimedia Commons 

    

There was another interesting possibility for the mystery star. As per John Flannery, it could have been Halley's comet of 141AD. He ran a simulation using data from NASA/JPL/Horizons, and 1P/Halley would have been at Right Ascension 9 hours, 13' 12' Declination+ 24 degrees 10' on April 28th, 141 AD in the adjacent constellation of Leo, the Lion shinning at +1st magnitude while the Moon was in Cancer at dusk.                          

Halley's Comet in late April, 141 AD, Credit: Stellarium

 

In astrology, the Moon rules the sign of Cancer. We may never be very sure what the coin intended to depict, but such depictions on coins are important to try and pinpoint the dates and events of the past   

Antoninus Pius

Universe Today

Aksumite Kingdom Coins

 

The Kingdom of Aksum, also known as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was centered in Northeast Africa and South Arabia from Classical antiquity (8th century BC to 6th century AD) to the Early Middle Ages (6th to the 10th century AD). The empire was based in present day Ethiopia, spanning Eritrea, northern Djibouti, and eastern Sudan and southern Arabia. Axum served as the kingdom's capital till the 9th century AD. The kingdom was one of ancient world's great powers of the 3rd century AD. 

                       

Aksum, King Ousanas, 315-325 AD, gold coin

                        

Aksumite empire's maximum extent of influence, based on p 97 of The Complete History of the World.

 

Aksumites traded with Egypt, Rome, Persia and India. Many of the twenty or so Aksumite rulers are known only from their coins. From the late third century AD, the kings of Aksum minted gold, silver and bronze coins. These were the only coins in Africa, south of the Sahara in ancient times. Artistically, the peak of coinage came under Wazeba and Ousanas (320 AD), who may have been co-rulers. With the reign of Ezana (330-356 AD), Aksum entered a new era. He was the last pagan ruler. His conversion to Christianity was reflected in his coins. The Christian cross symbol was probably used for the first time on his coins. 

                       

      The Obelisk of Axum
 

A large portion of the gold coinage was struck during the time of King Nezana and Nezool, around 460 AD. The empire reached its greatest power under Kaleb around 520 AD, who began a custom of royal names from the Old Testament.

The kingdom's slow decline began in the 7th century and currency ceased to be minted. The Persian, and later Muslim presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically and the population in the city shrank. The kingdom collapsed around 960 AD and Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Middle Ages (6th to 15th century AD). The history of Aksum was largely forgotten and replaced by myths created by later dynasties.  

Coins of Aksum

                       

Aksum, King Noe, 400-425 AD, gold, weight 1.5 gm, Obverse: Crowned bust facing right surrounded by wheat grains and legend, Reverse: Capped bust facing right surrounded by wheat grains and legend

                         

Aksum, King Ousanas, 315- 325 AD, gold, weight 2.5 gm, Obverse: Crowned bust of Ousanas to right, holding spear in right hand, flanked by wheat stalks, surrounded by lettering, disc on crescent above, Reverse: Bust of Ousanas to right, wearing headcloth, holding whisk in right hand, flanked by wheat stalks, surrounded by lettering, disc on crescent above

                         

Aksum, 340-425 AD, bronze, weight 0.9 gm, Obverse: Bust right, draped, wearing head cloth ornamented on front, within circle, Reverse: Cross within circle, script Greek

                         

Aksum, King Joel, large cross, 590-615 AD, bronze, weight 1.0 gm, Obverse: Draped bust right, wearing crown ornamented with a cross, small pellet behind, Reverse: Greek cross, legend quartered, translation: joel

                         

Aksum, King Joel, 590-600 AD, weight 0.9 gm, Obverse: King Joel around crowned and draped bust facing, cross within crown, Reverse: Cross surrounded by legend ''Christ is wit us''

Aksumite Kingdom

Coinage of Aksum 
 

Cornucopia and Coins

 

Cornucopia is a well-known, and, on coins, often recurring symbol of abundance, fecundity, fertility and happiness. Derived from the latin ''cornu'' meaning ''horn'' and ''copiae'' meaning ''plenty'', it has long been used as a common harvest symbol. It is identified by some with the horn of Amalthea, the nurse of Jupiter, and from which horn fruits and flowers and all the riches of nature and art are represented. Others say that it is the horn which Hercules tore from the head of Archelous, in his encounter with that protean monster, and which the nymphs picked up and converted into the horn of plenty.

                        

Ptolemaic Egypt, Arsinoe II, Philadelphus, 270-268 BC, AR Decadrachm.

Cornucopia, filled with fruits, or enclosed within a wreath, formed of corn-ears and flowers, appear either as a symbol of the monetary triumvirs, denoting the abundance of all the things, to be supplied by means of money, or as the symbol of the curule aediles.

Cornucopia appears in the fifth century BC, as an attribute of the god Hades. The ruler is represented with this object many times on vases of that time. From the fourth century BC, in the reliefs of Asclepeion Athens, Tyche is represented holding a cornucopia. This type of representation develops strongly in the Hellenistic period and then in Roman times. This ornament appears on a variety of antique monuments, both sculptural and numismatics. The cornucopia became the attribute of several Greek and Roman deities.                       

Allegory of Fortune (1658) by Salvator Rosa, representing Fortuna, the Goddess of luck, with the horn of plenty     

                        

Statue of a Ptolemaic queen, perhaps Cleopatra VII, 200-30 BC, dolomitic limestone                 

                        

The cornucopia was one of the most popular religious symbols of the ancient world and was commonly used on Jewish coins. Coins of the Ptolemaic Kings of Egypt, Seleucid Kings of Syria and a number of ancient Hellenistic city-states depicted cornucopia 

                         

Statue of Fortuna, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BC

  

                     

The interior of a cup discovered in Etruria, dated from 450-400 BC

                       

In Roman coinage, many gods and personifications are represented holding the cornucopia. Abundantia, Africa, Asia, Aeternitas, Moneta, Annona, Ceres, Concordia, Fecunditas, Felicitas, Fortuna, Roma, Salus etc. It usually appears in two positions, either with the mouth or opening facing upwards or facing downwards, depending on the deity being portrayed.

In modern depictions, it is a hollow, horn shaped wicker basket filled with various kinds of festive fruit and vegetables. In Nort America it is associated with Thanksgiving and the harvest. The symbol is depicted in the flag and state seal of Idaho, the Coat of Arms of Colombia, Panama, Peru and Venezuela and the Coat of Arms of the state of Victoria and Australia.

                     

      Coat of Arms of Columbia

                      

      Coat of Arms of Peru

                      

      Coat of arms of Kharkiv, Ukraine

Cornucopia on Coins

                      

Ptolemy VII Euegetes, 145-116 BC, gold, 27.6 gm, Obverse: Diademed and veiled head of Arsinoe II to right, Reverse: Double cornucopia filled with fruit and bound with fillets

                      

Ptolemaic Egypt, Arsinoe II, Philadelphus, 270-268 BC, AR Decadrachm, weight 35.5 gm, Obverse: veiled head of Arsinoe II right, wearing diademed stephane and horn of Ammon, scepter surmounted by lotus over left shoulder, dotted border, Reverse: Double cornucopia bounded by fillet, containing pyramid cakes, pomegranates and other fruits, with grapes cluster, dotted border

                        

Seleucid Empire, Alexander II Zabinas, 128-122 BC, AR Drachm, weight 3.7 gm, Obverse: Diademed head right, Reverse: Filleted double cornucopia

                       

Judaea, Hasmoneans, Alexander Jannaios, 103-76 BC, Prutah, weight 1.9 gm, Jerusalem mint, Obverse: legend in four lines within wreath/splayed double cornucopia with pomegranate between   

                        

Aquilia Severa, Augusta, 220-221 AD, AR Denarius, Rome mint, struck under Elagabalus, Obverse: Draped bust right, Reverse: Concordia standing left, holding double cornucopia and sacrificing out of patera over lighted altar to left, star to right

                         

Bactria, Indo Greek, Philoxenos Aniketos, 125-110 BC, weight 8.3 gm, Obverse: Tyche standing left, raising right hand and holding cornucopia, monogram to lower left, Obverse: Zebu standing right 

                     

Kushan Empire, 325-345 AD, Dinar, gold, weight 7.9 gm, Obverse: Shaka standing left, sacrificing over altar and holding staff, trident to left, ''bhri'' in Brahmi below arm, Saka in Brahmi outer right, Reverse: Ardoxsho enthroned facing, holding diadem in right hand and cradling cornucopia in left arm, tamgha,  upper left, Vasudeva II 

                       

Judaea, Hasmonean Kingdom, Mattatayah, 40-37 BC, AE Prutot, weight 14.4 gm, Jerusalem, Obverse: Mattatayah and council of the Jews, double cornucopia, Reverse: Ivy wrath tied with ribbons

Cornucopia

Cornucopia on Coins 

Senatus Consulto (S.C.) Roman Coins

 

The Senate was a political Institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Senate is said to be created by Rome's first king, Romulus, (753-716 BC) initially consisting of 100 men. The Senate held three principal responsibilities. It functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power, it served as the king's council, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert with the people of Rome. During the years of monarchy, the Senate's most important function was to elect new kings. While the king was normally elected by the people, it was actually the Senate who chose each new king.

When the Republic began, the Senate consisted of 300-500 senators who served for life. The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called ''Senatus Consulta'', which inform constituted ''advice'' from the senate to a magistrate. These decrees usually were obeyed in practice. The first emperor, Augustus (27 BC-14AD), reduced the size of the Senate to about 100 to 200 active seniors at one time, out of a total of about 600 total senators. 

What exactly does the Senate have to do with coins. The SC also appears on base metal coins of Antioch and Cyprus, far away from the purview of the Senate. It also continues long past the time when the senate itself and its decrees had any relevance. When these letters EX. S.C are found on Roman coins, they signify, not that the Senate caused them to be struck, but the coinage of them had the ''Senatus Consultum'' or senatorial sanction when struck. EX. S.C appears on many family coins, but in the Imperial series, the mark is observed on coins of Augustus, Agrippa, Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Faustina, Marciana, Hadrian, and Sept Severus. 

                              

These base metal coins inscribed with S.C. contained messages for the public, as these coins had the widest reach and the best possibility of making an impact. For most ordinary Romans, this is what coinage was, and the message it sent was simple, the existence and importance of ''senate consultum'' (the text emanating from the senate) and the Senate in general. The ordinary Roman could look at one of these coins and see that Senate still existed and still mattered. 

Coins with S.C                            

Augustus, Rome Mint 16 BC, weight 9.9 g, Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS, bare head of Augustus facing right, Reverse: C CASSIVS CELER around S.C.     

                           

Tiberius, Rome Mint, 21-22 AD, weight 9.8 g, Obverse: TI CAESAR DIVI, bare head of Tiberius facing left, Reverse: PONTIF MAXIM TRIBVN, around S.C.

                            

Claudius, Antioch mint, 41-54 AD, weight 15 g, Obverse: IM TI CLA CAE, laureate head facing right, Reverse: Large SC within wreath  

                           

Ostrogoths Theodahad, 534-536 AD, follis, Rome mint weight 12.1g, Obverse: D N THEEO DAHATVS REX, mustached and mantled bust right, wearing ornate decorated with pectoral cross, Reverse: VICTORIA PRINCIPVM, SC across field, Victory standing right, holding palm across left shoulder and wreath in right hand 

Senatus Consulto (S.C.)

S.C on Roman Coins
             

The famous Athenian Owl Tetradrachm Coin (5th century BCE)

 

The Owl of Athena was one of the most important symbols in ancient Greece. It became a political, literary and philosophical symbol. Athena was a virgin warrior goddess and was widely worshipped in the Greek world. The goddess was the embodiment of wisdom, strategy, warfare and technical skills. Athena was long associated with the owl. Some believe it was inherited from the Indo-Europeans or Minoans (2000-1500 BCE). Owls are intelligent birds and highly effective hunters. These qualities are those that represent many of the aspects of Athena. There were many depictions of Athena with her companion, the owl. According to the myth, the owl sat on the blind side of the goddess and allowed her to see everything and to comprehend the truth.                        

Athens Greece Silver Tetradrachm, 440 BCE

Some believe that the name of the greatest Greek city Athens came from the goddess. 

                           

Athena holding a helmet and a spear, with an owl (490-480 BC), The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

                         

Mattei Athena at Louvre. Roman copy from the 1st century BC after a Greek original of the 4th century BC
           

The owl became a symbol of the city. Many Athenian coins have the symbol of Athena and the owl. 

The Romans were deeply influenced by Greek religion and myth. One of Rome's most important deities was Minerva, the Latin Goddess of reason, wisdom, strategy, poetry and handicraft became associated with Athena. The Romans adopted the Owl of Athena to represent the powers and characteristics of Minerva. Like her Greek counterpart, the Roman deity came to be represented by the symbol of the nocturnal raptor in art and coins.

                       

Fresco of the Roman goddess Minerva
 

The owl of Athena became the common obverse of the Athenian tetradrachms after 510BC and according to Philochorus (Greek historian of the third century BC), the Athenian tetradrachm was known as ''glaux'' (little owl) throughout the ancient world and ''owl'' in present day numismatics.

                         

Raised relief image of Minerva on a Roman gilt silver bowl, 1st century BCE

 

Aristotle used the symbol of the owl to denote the wise. The 19th century German idealist philosopher Hegel famously wrote that ''the owl of Minerva spreads its wings only with the falling of the dusk''. This refers to the fact that people only become wise after the event has passed. Philosophy appears only in the ''maturity of reality'', because it understands in hindsight.  

The owl is still a symbol of wisdom to this day. Today being as ''wise as an owl'' is a popular expression.  

                     

Athens Tetradrachm, 465 BCE, silver, weight 17.15 g, Obverse: Head of Athena wearing crested Attic helmet decorated with spiral palmette and three olive leaves, Reverse: AOL Owl standing with closed wings, head facing, behind olive sprig with one berry and crescent. All within incuse square.

 

The thick and heavy Athenian owl tetradrachm was the largest silver coin of its time. These were produced for over four hundred years. While the art style changed, the theme remained consistent, showing Athena, on the obverse and an owl on the reverse. Mintage of these coins started around 512 BCE and continued through the early fifth century BCE. In 449 BCE, the designs were revised, and production increased. These later coins are more common than the earlier issues. The value of a tetradrachm was too high for daily transactions, but was used for building projects, trade and payment for war preparations.

The inscription ''AOE'' is an abbreviation of AOENAION, ''of the Athenians''. These coins were copied by other countries too. The reverse features an olive sprig, referring to olive oil, one of Athens' primary exports. A crescent shape, possibly a waning moon is depicted on most issues. Athena's profile is depicted with an enigmatic smile, with a floral design on her helmet. New style tetradrachms were minted in the second century BCE. 

Athena Owl

Athena Owl Tetradrachm Coin