Roman Emperor Aurelian: Restorer of the World.

 

Aurelian born near Byzantium (now Istanbul) in AD 214, was a Roman emperor from 270 - 275 AD. By reuniting the empire, which had virtually disintegrated under the pressures of invasions and internal revolts, he earned his self-adopted title restitutor orbis (restorer of the world). Aurelian was an Army officer in AD 260, when the frontiers of the empire suddenly collapsed. 

                        

Aurelian Antioch, AD 270-275, gold, weight 5.9gm

With his compatriot Claudius, Aurelian led the cavalry of the emperor Gallienus (253-268 AD). Upon Gallienus's assassination in 268 AD, Claudius became the emperor. The new ruler quickly suppressed the rebellion of the usurper Aureolus, but after a reign of 18 months, Claudius died. His brother Quintillus, who ruled about three months, died or was killed, and in September 270 AD, Aurelian succeeded as emperor.

                       

Bust of Aurelian, Museo di Santa Giulia, Brescia.

Aurelian quickly started to restore the Roman authority in Europe. First, he turned back the Vandals from Pannonia (present day central Europe. After a series of battles, he expelled the Alemanni and Juthunngi across the Danube. He ordered the construction of a new city wall around Rome, which still stands and bears his name.

                         

The Aurelian Walls, Rome, via Colosseum Rome.

In 271 AD, he sought to recover the eastern provinces which for 10 years had obeyed the rule of the princes of Palmyra. He captured Palmyra, and when Palmyra revolted a second time in 273 AD, Aurelian recaptured and destroyed the city. 

                         

An illustration depicting the Roman soldiers of Aurelian's Army by Nikolay Zubkov.

In 274 AD, he returned west to confront Tetricus, the rival emperor, who controlled Gaul, Spain and Britain. Beset by a German invasion and by internal conspiracies, Tetricus concluded a secret treaty with Aurelian, deserting to him at the battle of Chalons. The leaderless army of the Rhine was swiftly defeated. Thus, the vast empire was again ruled by a central authority. 

                          

Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus with Romans fighting the barbarians, mid 3rd century CE, Museo Nazionale, Rome.

Aurelian was an outstanding general and an uncompromising administrator. He attempted to reform the silver coinage, debased for more than 40 years. Early in 275 AD, while marching to open a campaign against Persia, Aurelian was murdered by a group of officers who had been misled by his secretary into believing themselves marked for execution. The government continued in the name of Aurelian's widow, Ulpia Severina, till the next six months, till the appointment of Marcus Claudius Tacitus to the throne. The empire remained divided until Diocletian's ascension in AD 284. 

Aurelian's most significant achievement is the one he was completely unaware of. He introduced a new deity to the Romans, a solar god, Sol Invictus, the invincible Sun. This paved a way for the oriental cult towards emergence of Christianity as an official religion decades later. The birthday of Aurelian's god is December 25th, the same day celebrated as Christmas today.

                       

Christ as the Sun God, in Tomb of Julii in the Vatican necropolis, 3rd century CE. Rome.

Aurelians Coins.

                       

Aurelian, Antioch, AD 270-275, gold, weight 5.9 gm, Obverse: bust of Aurelian facing right, Reverse: Sol holding whip and raising right hand, walking left between two seated captives. 

                         

Aurelian, AR Denarius, weight 2.9 gm, AD 273, Obverse: Laureate draped bust left, holding spear and shield decorated with Victory between two bound captives, Reverse: Sol, radiate naked except for chlamys over shoulder, walking left holding whip and raising right hand.

                          

   

Aurelian, Milan mint, AD 272, Obverse: draped and cuirassed bust right, Reverse: Emperor standing right, holding vertical spear and globe, receiving Victory from soldier, standing left, holding traverse spear, mintmark T.

                          

   

Aurelian, antononianus, weight 2.9 gm, Obverse: cuirassed bust of Aurelian facing right, Reverse: Sol walking left, chlamys flying behind, holding whip and raising right hand, mintmark dot A dot L.

                          

    

Aurelian, antoninianus, Rome, AD 270-275, weight 2.5 gm, Obverse: Cuirassed bust of Aurelian facing right, Reverse: Victory walking left, holding wreath and palm branch, captive at foot left, Mintmark B.

The Thirty Pieces of Silver

 

Then one of the twelve, called Judas Iscariot, went unto the chief priests, and said to them, what will you give me, and I will deliver him unto you? And they covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver". Mathew (26, 14-15) 

                       

Shekels of Tyre, Silver, Phoenicia, 110 BC, (Blood Money)

 

There can hardly be doubt that the " thirty pieces of silver," said to have been received by Judas Iscariot in payment for his betrayal of Jesus, consisted of tetradrachms or shekels. Because the betrayal took place when and where it did, we can deduce the identity of the coins rather easily.

                       

Arrest of Christ (also called Kiss of Judea), by Giotto, 1303-1305, at Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, Italy.

One important way in which the Phoenician coins differed from their Seleucid predecessors is that they reverted from being based on the coins of Athens (the Attic standard) to a standard first instituted by the Ptolemies, which is the Phoenician standard. A tetradrachm under Attic standard weighs 17.5 gm, but 14.5 gm under the Phoenician standard. This trivial statistic makes these coins important in the Bible.

                       

Zechariah 11:12-13, thirty pieces of silver.

 

In ancient Jewish tradition, when payments of Shekels were made to the priests, the rabbis specified that these shekels must be of Tyrian weight. As these coins had silver content of 94 percent, they met the biblical requirement of being pure. Most of the other coins from Macedon, Thrace, Egypt and Syria did not meet these standards. 

These coins were also used to pay the annual half shekel tax or tribute to the Temple in Jerusalem. There was a stipulation of pure silver. It is instructive that the famous reference to the thirty pieces of silver is the last in the Bible. In fact, the number 30 has some historical relevance going as far back as Exodus (21:32) where this was the amount that had to be paid to an owner on the account of the accidental death of a slave, Also, Zechariah (11:12-13) mentions thirty shekels as the price of blood.                      

Shekel of Tyre, year 159 =33/4 CE, silver, weight 13.9 gm, Obverse: Laureate head of Melqart, Reverse: Eagle with foot and palm branch over shoulder and date 159=33/4 CE, in field KO and NAP monogram. Struck in the year of crucifixion. 

                         

Tyrian half Shekel, silver, weight 6.7 gm, Obverse: Head of Melqarth facing right, Reverse: Eagle standing facing left on beak of ship.

Reference: Coins of The Bible, by Arthur Friedberg.

The Alupa Dynasty and Coins

 

The Alupa dynasty was an Indian dynasty that ruled from 200 AD to 1444 AD. in Southern India. They were local feudatories at different times under major dynasties such as the Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and later Vijayanagar. 

                         

Alupa Dynasty, Gold Gadyana, 11 century AD, in the name of Pandya Dhananjaya. 

The kingdom they ruled was known as Alvakheda Arusasira, and it spanned the coastal districts of the modern Indian State known as Karnataka, including Kasaragod district of present-day Karnataka. The Alupas played a significant role in the political, cultural and religious history of coastal Karnataka.

                       

The Alupas and their neighbouring polities, 600 AD. 

                               

The term Alvakheda could be seen in several ancient inscriptions of the Alupas. The region encompassed modern Tulunadu, northern and central part of Udupi district and parts of north Kannada.

The name of the dynasty is recorded in inscriptions as Alupa, Aluva, Alva, Aluka and Alpa. Ptolemy, the 2nd century geographer and historian identifies the Alvakheda as Olokhoira, widely believed to be a corrupted term Alva Kheda, the land of the Alvas.

                         

The Vaddarse. Old Kannada inscription of King Aluvarasa 1, (650 AD)

 

Their influence over coastal Karnataka lasted for about 1200 years. They ruled initially from Mangalore and at other times from Udyavara in Udipi and later from Barkur. Their first regular full-length inscription, the Vaddarase in Kannada, is dated to early 7th century. They maintained marital relations with their overlords over the centuries. Their royal emblem was the double fish.

                           

Royal Emblem of the Alupas depicting upright double fishes and twin moons under a royal umbrella.

The descendants of this dynasty still survive to this day and have spread in the karavali region and are widely referred to as the Bunt. They can be identified with their surnames such as Shetty, Rai, Hegde, Alva, Chowta etc. Even though most Bunt are Hindus by faith, sections of the community follow Jainism and are called Jain Bunt. 

Coinage. The Alupas, as a feudatory of the Western Chalukyas in coastal Karnataka, issued coins with Kannada legends minted in Mangalorem and those in Nagarai legends at the Udupi mint. Kannada was their language of administration. The Pagodas and Fanams were the common coinage of all the Alupa kings. The obverse of the coins carried the royal emblem " Two Fishes'' and the reverse had the legend '' Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya'' either in Nagari or old Kannada. They were one of the three dynasties that issued gold coins as early as 8th century AD. The gold used to come from trade with Romans, Arabs and the kingdoms of Gangas. 

                          

Alupa Dynasty, Gold gadyana, in the name of Pandya Dhananjaya, early type, 11 century AD, weight 3.7 gm, Obverse: Dynastic emblem of two fishes under a royal umbrella, Reverse: legend '' Sri Pandya Dhananjaya" in Hale Kannada in three lies.

                         

Chalunka Dynasty, Gold Pagoda, 1200-1300AD, Weight 3.58 gm Obverse: Two figures with symbols around, conch, lamp and general design, large umbrella above all, Reverse: writing describing the King. 

 

Crossing the Rubicon and Coin

 

The phrase " crossing the Rubicon " is an idiom meaning "passing the point of no return" or, for making irrevocable decisions or embarking on significant new paths.  The event known as Julius Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon occurred on 10 January, 49 BC, and marked a pivotal moment in Roman history.                       

Julius Caesar, Denarius, 49-48 BC.

                       

A statue of Julius Caesar in Rimini, Italy.

   

At this time, he was a prominent general and statesman who had expanded Roman territories through military campaigns in Gaul and beyond. The Rubicon River served as a legal boundary and crossing it with an army was considered an act of insurrection against the Roman Senate, which had forbidden him from entering Italy with his legions. This river was one of the two rivers that marked the boundary between the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul to the north and areas controlled directly by Rome to the south. This bold move ignited a civil war against his rival, Pompey. 

                          

The Rubicon River (ft Rubico) on an originally 4th Century CE roman map.

                          

A map of the Rubicon (dark blue), believed to be the same river crossed by Caesar.

Alea iacta est (The die is cast) is another Latin phrase attributed to Julius Caesar by Suetonius on 10 January, 49 BC as he crossed the Rubicon. Caesar probably borrowed the phrase from Menander, the famous Greek writer of comedies. Caesar declared in Greek with a loud voice to all those who were present " Let a die be cast" and led the army across.

                          

A painting showing Julius Caesar crossing the Rubicon River, 

Following his crossing, Caesar quickly took control of Rome and the wider Italian peninsula, eventually pursuing Pompey to Egypt, where he was assassinated. Caesar's consolidation of power marked a transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, as he began to adopt titles and roles that defied traditional republican norms. His reign culminated in his appointment as dictator for life, a position that attracted admiration and resentment, leading to his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC, which ended his dramatic rise and significantly impacted the course of Roman history.

                         

An image of Caesar's solitary indecision from a 19th Century French book of education.

"Crossing of Rubicon coin" refers to a Roman silver Denari struck by Julius Caesar around 49-48 BC, notably the iconic "elephant denarius" minted to fund his army as he famously crossed the Rubicon River.        

Julius Caesar Denarius, 49-48 BC, silver, weight 4.16 gm, Obverse: elephant walking right, trampling dragon, or a snake in exergue, inscription, Reverse: Emblems of the pontificate, simpulum, aspergillum, axe and apex (cap).

Lithuanian Long Currency

 

Republic of Lithuania is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and the Russian semi-exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast to the southwest, with a maritime border with Sweden to the west. 

                        

The first Lithuanian money, Lithuanian Long with notches.

                        

Location of Lithuania (dark green) in Europe.

The first written record of the name of the country dates back to 1009 AD. 

                         

Lithuania's name in writing (Litua, on line 7), 1009. 

In the 1230's, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. Subsequent expansion resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a bi-confederal Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1772 and 1795, the Russian Empire annexed most of Lithuania. Lithuania declared independence in 1918 but was occupied by Soviet Union in 1944. In 1990, the first Soviet country to break away and became independent. Its capital is Vilnius. 

                       

Changes in the territory of Lithuania from the 13th to 15th century. At its peak, Lithuania was the largest state in Europe.

The Lithuanian long currency was a type of money used by the Baltic tribes and in the early Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 12th to 15th centuries. It was in the form of silver ingots. Mostly, they were semicircular rods about 13 cm in length and between 100 and 110 gm in weight. The currency is also known as Ilgasis, Kapa (from kopa, which is a unit equal to 60), Grivina or Rublis.

                        

Lithuanian long currency used by Baltic tribes and in the early Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 12th to 15th centuries. 

The notches on the bar were for establishing the quality of silver. The Scandinavian mark was taken as the basis for the weight of semi-cylindrical stick shaped silver bars. Oblong shaped silver bars were widespread across the region. The form of bar was likely determined by the simplicity of its production and convenience for the user. The simplest method of casting an oblong stick shaped ingot was to pour, with a scoop of a certain volume, the necessary amount of molten silver into a groove made in soil (or clay/sand). These were of high value, therefore, when circulated, they were often cut into smaller pieces. 

                          

About two years back, researchers in Kernave discovered a treasure trove of these silver rods, while digging in the remains of a decayed manor. This was the site of the medieval capital of Grand Duchy of Lithuania some 30 km to the northwest of Vilnius. 

First depiction of Jesus and Coins

 

The depiction of Jesus in pictorial form, as aniconism in Christianity was rejected within the ante-Nicene period (100 AD to 325 AD). Except for Jesus wearing tzitzit, the tassels on a tallit, in Mathew 14:36 and Luke 8:43-44, there is no physical description of Jesus contained in any of the canonical Gospels. It took several centuries to reach a conventional standardized form for his physical appearance, which has remained largely stable since then.

                       

Justinian II, 685-695 AD, gold, weight 4.4 gm, Constantinople, draped bust facing of Christ with cross behind head.

Christ's image did not appear on coinage until the first reign of Justinian II (AD 685 to 695 AD), about 350 years after Christianity had become the state religion of the Romans, and thus also their ''Byzantine'' successors. Prior to this, a portrait of the emperor was the usual obverse type for most Roman and Byzantine coins. The connection between the Christ portrait and the adoption in AD 692 of the Canon 82 of the Quinisext Council is obvious, as a symbol of Christ was prescribed in place of the Lamb. On that occasion a familiar image was chosen, the portrait of Christ Pantocrator (almighty), which prior to that had graced many icons, including a famous one in the imperial palace in Constantinople. This form and style of Christ image seems to have found its roots in the work of the sculpture Phidias, who had about 1150 years before had constructed a massive statue of the Greek god Zeus at Olympia. 

                       

Justinian II, first reign, 685-695 AD, gold, weight 4.4 gm, Constantinople, Obverse: draped bust facing Christ with cross behind head, raising his right hand in benediction and holding book of Gospels in left, Reverse: Justinian II, crowned, bearded and wearing loros, standing facing, holding cross potent on bases, and two steps in his right hand and akakia in his left.

                            

Justinian II, first reign, 685-695 AD, gold, weight 4.2 gm, Constantinople mint, struck 692-695 AD, Obverse: Nimbate bust facing Christ with cross behind head, raising his right hand in benediction and holding book of Gospels in left, Reverse: Justinian II, crowned, bearded and wearing loros, standing facing, holding cross potent on bases, on two steps and akakia.

 

In AD 695 Justinian II was ousted from power by an ambitious general and sent to exile. Ten years passed before he returned for a second reign (AD 705 TO 711 AD). This time Justinian II resumed the use of Christ's image on coinage, but instead of the long-haired image of his first coinage, he chose a radically different style of portrait, a Semitic type on which Christ's hair and beard are rendered in short, tight curls. The likely source of this style of portrait was icons, from the Holi Land and the Near East.

                         

Justinian II, with Tiberius, second reign, 705-711 AD, gold, weight 4.4 gm, Constantinople mint, Obverse: draped bust facing Christ with cross behind head, raising his right hand in benediction and holding book of Gospels in left, Reverse: Justinian II and Tiberius half-length busts, crowned, bearded and both wearing chlamys, standing facing, holding cross potent set on two steps between them with right hands.

  

Both types of Christ portraits used by Justinian II show Christ cradling the Book of Christ in his left hand in benediction. They also show the Holy Cross behind his head, an element which differs from most Byzantine coin portraits of Christ.  

The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries.  

                           

The Healing of the Paralytic, one of the oldest known depictions of Jesus, from the Syrian city of Dura Europos, 235 AD.  

                       

Bearded Jesus between Peter and Paul, Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, Rome. Second half of the 4th century.

                          

The oldest known icon of Christ Pantocrator, in Saint Catherine's Monastery, Senai Peninsula, Egypt, built between 548 and 565 AD.

Gulf Rupees, issued by Reserve Bank of India

Prior to the 1960's, countries such as UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and Oman utilized the Indian Rupee as their designated currency. Before the oil boom of the 1960s, despite being economically modest, centered around trading dates, camels, fishing and pearl diving. It was more feasible for the Gulf States to use the Indian Rupee, which was minted in India by the British East India Company and later by the Government of British India. 

Even following India's independence in 1947, the Indian Rupee continued as their official currency. The ''Gulf Rupee'' notes were introduced through a legislative bill that was approved by both houses of Indian Parliament in May 1959. The Gulf Rupee was the official currency of countries around the Persian Gulf between 1959 and 1966 (1970 Oman).

                        

Persian Gulf Issue, One Rupee, A K Roy, 1959

These notes were known as the ''External Rupee'' or the ''Gulf Rupee'' and were designated for use solely in the Persian Gulf region, not as legal tender in India. One of the reasons for creating these Gulf Rupees was the large scale of gold smuggling into India, mainly from the Gulf countries due to the substantial price difference and proximity to India. A report by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in 1959, revealed gold worth 92.4 million USD had been illicitly brought into India. 

The exchange process in the Gulf States was successfully concluded. As the Gulf States were transitioning from the Indian Rupee to their own currencies, six weeks from May 1959 to June 1959 were allocated to swap all old Indian Rupees in circulation in the Gulf with the new currency notes. It was estimated that when the special notes were introduced, there were around 300 to 500 million Rupees in circulation in the Gulf.

The Gulf Rupee notes shared a similar design to the Indian notes but had a few distinctions. They came in different colours, were only redeemable in Bombay, and had a unique serial number prefix ''Z'' over the number.

                         

                         

Persian Gulf Issue, One Rupee, bank Note, signed by A K Roy, 1959, Z Prefix.

                          

                           

Persian Gulf Note, 10 Rupees, bank Note signed by H.V.R. Iyengar. Z Prefix.

                          

                          

Persian Gulf Note, 5 Rupees bank Note, signed by H.V.R. Iyengar. Z Prefix.

                         

                          

Persian Gulf Note, 100 Rupees, bank Note signed by H.V.R. Iyengar. Z Prefix.

During the introduction of Gulf Rupee notes, the RBI observed that a significant amount of Indian Rupees were taken by Haj pilgrims to Saudi Arabia annually, which were returned to the RBI for conversion into pound sterling. To prevent any illegal return of Rupees through Saudi Arabian banks, the RBI introduced two special ''Haj Notes'' in denominations of 10 and 100 Rupees. These notes, not legal tenders in India, could be exchanged in Bombay for Indian Rupees or pounds Sterlings. The 10 Ruppe note was blue in colour and the 100 Rupee note was red. The word ''HAJ'' appeared on these notes and the serial number that was prefixed with the letters ''HA''.

                         

                          

HAJ Pilgrim Issue Note ''Specimen'', signed by H.V.R Iyengar, Imaged by Heritage Auctions, HA.com. HAJ written on the left of Reserve Bank of India.

                          

HAJ Pilgrim Issue 100 Rupee Note, signed by H.V.R Iyengar, HAJ written on the left of Reserve Bank of India. Serial no HA.

In 1966, the Indian Rupee was devalued by nearly 57 percent. This led to replacing Indian rupees with Saudi Riyals or Bahraini Dinars in most states by the end of 1966. The Gulf Rupees and Haj notes were eventually withdrawn from circulation.

Today, these notes are highly sought after by collectors in both India and Gulf States.