Makara/ Capricorn/ Crocodile and Coins

 

Makara (in Sanskrit, pronounced Makar), is a legendary sea-animal, crocodile in Hindu mythology. In Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn. A common word in Hindi often used is Makar Rashi. Makar is the origin of the Hindi word for crocodile, (magar). It is generally depicted as a half terrestrial animal in the frontal part (stag, deer or elephant) and half aquatic animal in the hind part (usually of a fish, a seal or a snake, though sometimes a floral tail is depicted). Though Makara may take several forms in Hindu culture, in the modern world, its form is always related to the marsh crocodile or water monitor.

                                           

Samudragupta, 330-376 AD, Ganga standing on a Makara

                                             

Makara sculpture at Jain Museum, Khajuraho

  

During Vedic times when Indra was the God of heaven, Varuna (the water God) became the God of the seas and rode on Makara, which was called ''the water monster vehicle''.

                                           

        Makara as Varuna's vehicle

Vishnu's earrings are shown in the form of Makara. Lakshmi sitting on a lotus and pulling the tongue of the elephant shaped Makara depicts her image as the goddess of prosperity, wealth and well-being. 

From the 2nd century BC, the Makara appears to be the symbol of Pradyumna, son of Vasudeva Krishna. One of the epithets of Pradyumna in literature is ''Makaradhvaja'', meaning ''he whose banner or standard is the crocodile''. In Mahabharata too, the Makara is associated with Krishna's son and Kamadeva, the God of love.

                                            

The Makara, found on a pillar at the site of Heliodorus pillar, associated with Pradyumna, 2nd century BC, Gwalior Museum

In Hindu iconography, Makara is represented as the vahana (vehicle) of Ganga, the river goddess. In the medieval era of South India, Makara was shown as a fifth stage of development in the evolution of life.

                                           

Makara as the Vahana (vehicle) of goddess Ganga
  

                                           

Row of Makara at Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu, Karnataka

It is also represented in the iconography of Indonesia as kala-makara, in Khmer iconography of Angkor region of Cambodia, in Nepal as the Newa art, in Sri Lanka in Buddhist architecture on toranas. In Tibetan iconography, it is depicted in the Vajrayana as a weapon of strength and tenacity. 

                                          

Dragon Balustrade at the entrance of Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

Stone sculptures of the mythological Makara are widely spread throughout Southeast Asia and South Asia.    

                                           

Makara on one of the towers surrounding the Pyramid at Bakong, Roluos, Combodia

                                          

Kaushambi Makara pillar, 2nd century BC 

                                           

Makara on lintel from Sambor Prei Kuk temple, Kampong Thom City, Cambodia

                                           

Makara stairs adornment from Bubrah temple, Central Java, Indonesia

                                               

Hiti Manga in Bhaktapur, Nepal

                                           

Makar Sankaranti, is observed each year, the day the Sun enters the Capricorn zodiac in the Hindu Calendar. The festivities are known by different names all actoss India, Magh Bihu in Assam, Maghi (preceded by Lohri) in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Uttarayan in Gujarat, Sankarant in Andhra Pradesh, Shishur Sankrat in Kashmir. It is calles Maghe Sankrat in Nepal, Songkran in Thailand, Thingyan in Myanmar and Mohan Songkran in Cambodia 

Crocodile. The word comes from the ancient Greek ''krokodilos'' meaning a lizard, used in the phrase ''the lizard of the Nile''. The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin. A further corrupted form cocodrille is found in old French and was borrowed into Middle English as cocodrile. The modern form crocodile was adapted in the 16th century, replacing the earlier form. There is however a deep relationship between the Romans, Egyptians and crocodiles.

Areas and species of crocodiles around the world are depicted in the picture below.

                                         

Distribution of crocodiles species across the world

 

Crocodiles have appeared in various forms in religion across the world. Ancient Egypt had Sobek, the crocodile headed God, with his cult- city Crocodilopolis, and Taweret, the goddess of fertility. The Jukun shrine in the Wukari Federation, Nigeria is dedicated to crocodiles. Madagascar people such as the Sakalava and Antandroy see crocodiles as ancestor spirits. 

                                          

Brooklyn Museum, plaque with Crocodile Deity, 700-900 AD

Makara/ Capricorn/ Crocodiles on Coins

                                          

Magadha Janapada, 500-350 BC, silver, karshapana

Obverse: Five-symbols including Sun, Six-armed symbol, Makara, Fish and geometric symbol (ref # Rajgor Series 12)

Reverse: Blank

                                         

Kamaragupta I, 415-447 AD, gold, weight 7.9 g

Obverse: Kumaragupta I riding a horse to right, wearing decorated coat and trousers, holding sword in right hand pointing towards a rhinoceros 

Reverse: Ganga standing left on Makara which offers a lotus with its trunk to Ganga. In the right field a symbol, surrounded by a border of dots.

                                             

Ujjain, 1/8 karshapana, Makara type, weight 1.1 g

Obverse: Makara to right with fishtail and head of an elephant, Ujjain symbol on top

Reverse: Ujjain symbol with a dot in each angle, Ref: Pieper 366

                                           

Pre-Satavahana, 1st century BC, lead, Vidarbha, weight 0.9 g

Obverse: River goddess ''Bena'' standing in right field holding fish, Makara in the left field

Reverse: A ladder look like symbol

                                          

Cast Copper Makara beads of primitive money of Ujjaini region, 3rd century BC

                                               

Kumaragupta I, 415-447 AD, gold, weight 8.0 g

Obverse: Kumaragupta I, standing facing left wearing a waistcoat, necklace, head-dress and armlets, holding a bow in right hand and with left hand raised, shooting a tiger in left field. Halo surrounding head. In the left field is a crescent topped standard with ribbons. In the right field a crescent

Reverse: Goddess standing on the back of a Makara, facing left, halo around head, holding a lotus in left hand and feeds a peacock with right hand, surrounded by a border of dots

                                             

Samudragupta , 330-376 AD, gold, weight 7.5 g

Obverse: Samudragupta standing facing left, wearing a waistcoat, diadem, necklace and earrings, trampling on a tiger in left field shooting it with a bow in right hand and left hand pulled back behind head, crescent behind in left field

Reverse: Ganga facing left, standing on a Makara, wearing necklace, earrings, anklets and armlets. Right arm outstretched and left hand holds a lotus. In left field is a crescent topped standard with ribbons

Roman Coins. The first time a crocodile appeared on a Roman coin was in about 37 BC. It is widely believed that the crocodile symbolizes renewed Egyptian authority over Cyrenaica, a privilege that unlawfully was ceded to the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra VII (57-31 BC) by her husband Marc Antony. More than a century later a gold aureus of Emperor Caracalla (198-217 AD), may have had the last appearance of a crocodile on a Roman coin. Between these years Romans struck untold millions of Egyptian coins with crocodiles. 

                                            

Augustus, Denarius, 16-18 BC, weight 3.7 g

Obverse: Bare head to right

Reverse: Capricorn to right, holding globe attached to rudder, cornucopiae over shoulder 

                                         

Gallienus AR Antoninianus, Mediolanum, 260-261 AD, weight 3.6 g

Obverse: Draped and cuirassed bust of Gallienus to right

Reverse: Capricorn to right

                                            

Augustus, 27 BC-14 AD, Denarius, silver, weight 3.8 g

Obverse: Head of Augustus to left

Reverse: Capricorn to right, holding globe attached to rudder between its front hooves and bearing cornucopiae on its back

                                           

Gallienus, 253-268 AD, weight 4.0 g

Obverse: Head facing right

Reverse: Capricorn facing right


                                            

Augustus, 27 BC- 14 AD, Denarius, weight 3.4 g

Obverse: Augustus facing right, CAESAR DIVI F COS VI

Reverse: Capricorn crocodile to right, AEGYPTO CAPTA 

                                           

Augustus and Agrippa, 10 BC-10 AD, weight 12.8 g

Obverse: IMP/DIVI F above and below heads of Agrippa (left) and Augustus (right) back-to-back

Reverse: COL-NEM to left and right of palm-shoot, its tip to right, behind chained crocodile, above palm-tip, wreath with long ties

                                          

King of Mauretaina, Juba II with Cleopatra Selene, Denarius, weight 3.0 g

Obverse: Diademed head of Juba II to right

Reverse: Crocodile to left

Makara

Makara, Capricorn, Crocodile on ancient coins

Makara Iconography

  

''Fel Temp Reparatio'' and ''The Falling/Fallen Horseman'' on ancient Roman Coins

 

The reverse legend FEL TEMP REPARATIO is constantly recurring on ancient Roman silver and brass coins from the time of Constans and Constantius II to that of Gratian (AD 337 to AD 375). In a short article published in Numismatic Chronicle, 1933, titled ''Fel Temp Reparatio''. Harold Mattingly interprets these words as being Felix or Felicium, Temporum Reperatio, which '' seems to fit in with the Roman cry of good luck''. The words refer to an anniversary or a ''golden age'' of 348 AD as a ''happy renewal of times.''                                            

The fallen horseman coin, Constantius II, 337-361 AD

                                         

Anatomy of a FEL TEMP REPARATIO

    

These coins were introduced as part of the coinage reform of 348 AD by Constantius II and Constans. The earliest FEL TEMP REPARATIO coins were divided into three denominations with Falling Horseman and the Galleys being the largest. The middle denomination was almost the same diameter as the largest but contained less silver and was distinguished by left facing busts on their obverses. These commonly show the reverse type of a soldier leading a barbarian from a hut or the emperor with two captives. The third denomination was smaller and had a design showing a Phoenix. Later, the two smaller denominations were discontinued, and the Falling Horseman shrank in a series of standard revisions to a size smaller than the smallest ''Phoenix''. The popularly used size scales are AE1 (over 25mm), AE2 (21-25mm), AE3 (17-21mm) and AE4 (under 17 mm). The earliest of such coins are AE2, while the last issues were between AE3 and AE4.

The Falling Horseman. A Roman soldier is shown spearing a horseman. Varieties show the horseman in different positions, but in all he is dying. Of all Roman coins showing a battle scene, this series is unusual in showing the moment of death. The horsemen who died on these coins were from different tribes and countries. Some can be identified by their attire, hair and beards. This study though is still in progress by many.

During this period, only two sons of Constantine the Great survived and had divided the Empire under an uneasy truce. Mints issued more coins for the brother who controlled that region, but some coins were struck at all the mints. These coins were a favourite type for the next decade. Civil war involving the usurper Magnentius, and the brothers resulted in the death of Constans in 350 AD. Magnentius issued a small number of Falling Horsemen but switched to his own reverses. Falling Horsemen were issued by Constantius Gallus and Julian also.

Late Roman Bronze Coinage. Four design groups of the Falling Horsemen are Kneeling, Sitting, Reaching and Clutching.                                      

Kneeling : Horseman kneeling on ground before horse

                                          

Constans, 337-350 AD, Billon, weight 4.7 g

Obverse: Diademed draped bust of Constans to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, helmeted soldier to left, shield on left arm, spearing fallen horseman and kneeling towards horse.

Sitting: Horseman sitting on ground before horse.

                                           

Constans, 337-350 AD, Billon, weight 4.4 g

Obverse: Diademed, draped bust of Constans to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, soldier standing left, holding spear in right hand and shield on left arm, spearing fallen horseman kneeling on ground to right

Reaching: Horseman on the horse turning and reaching back towards the soldier

                                           

Constantius II, 350-355 AD, weight 4.0 g

Obverse: Constantius II, draped bust to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, soldier, shield on arm, spearing fallen horseman turning to face soldier and reaching out arm

                                            

Constantius II, 337-361 AD, bronze, weight 6.3 g

Obverse: Draped bust of Constantius II, to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, helmeted soldier to left, shield on left arm, spearing fallen horseman who is bearded 

Clutching: Horseman on the horse slumping forward clutching the horse's neck

                                              

Constantius II, 337-361 AD, bronze, weight 5.1 g

Obverse: Diademed draped bust of Constantius II to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, helmeted soldier to left, shield on left arm, spearing fallen horseman clutching.

However, all the four designs show variations within them too. The thirteen years of issue of these coins saw many changes in size and weight too.

The Galley. Whereas Constantius II favoured the Falling Horseman, Constans used the Galley steered by Victory. The scene probably shows Constans' crossing to Britain in 342 AD. The emperor is shown standing in the galley holding either a small figure of Victory or a Phoenix on a globe. Not many variations are noticed in these.

                                           

Constans, 348-350 AD, weight 5.2 g

Obverse: Diademed and draped bust of Constans to right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, emperor on galley to left, holding phoenix on globe and labarum, Victory seated steering at helm

  

The Barbarian and the Hut. The middle denominations of the FEL TEMP REPARATIO group was distinguished by the use of left facing bust portraits holding a globe in the hand. These AE2 coins were only slightly smaller than the largest denomination but contained less silver and were valued lesser than the large Galley and Fallen Horseman coins. Their reverse shows a soldier leading a small barbarian from a hut located under a tree. These coins were issued by 13 different mints, and each used a different type of tree (branch, shrub or plant). Like the Galley type, the Huts were discontinued on the death of Constans.

                                            

Constans, 348-350 AD, weight 4.1 g

Obverse: Diademed draped bust to left, holding globe

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, soldier advancing to right, head to left, holding spear and leading small figure from hut beneath tree, star above

Emperor and the Two Captives. The middle denomination type favoured by Constantius II shows the emperor with two captives. There are minor variations, but not to the degree as seen on the Huts coins.

                                           

Constantius II, 337-361 AD, bronze, weight 3.7 g

Obverse: Diademed draped bust of Constantius II to left, holding globe with right hand

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, Constantius standing left, holding labarum with right hand and shield set on ground with his left, at his feet to left, two bound captives moving left, but looking to right wearing pointed caps

 

The Phoenix. The smallest denomination of the FEL TEMP REPARATIO series, weighing half as much as the large AE2 coins and containing only a trace of silver. Obverse were right facing busts of either Constantius II or Constans but the type was discontinued before the first issues of the other rulers discussed above. These coins were issued by 10 mints in two major varieties. Six mints show the phoenix standing on a globe while five mints used a pile of stones (pyre). Thessalonica issued coins of both varieties.     

                                           

Constantius II, 337-361 AD, weight 2.3 g

Obverse: Diademed draped head of Constantius II right

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, radiated phoenix standing right on Orbis, star on right

      

                                            

Constantius II, 337-361 AD, weight 2.5 g

Obverse: Diademed draped bust of Constantius II

Reverse: Fel Temp Reparatio, nimbate phoenix standing right on pyre.

The current  explanation. A lot of research over the years has been undertaken to understand the significance of the reverse designs on the coins depicted above. Some plausible explanations could be found in the religious and political life during the mid 4th century AD. The falling horseman and captives were coupled to Constantius II, the ship and hut scenes were predominantly paired with Constans. The scenes showing an Infantryman defeating a horseman has appeared very rarely. The falling horseman had typical Sassanid attributes, like a pointy beard curved upwards and wide trousers, and was often depicted wearing a Phrygian cap. This is probably depicting the capture of the Sassanid crown prince in a battle near Singara in 344 AD between the Romans and the Sassanid. 

The hut scene linked to the western part of the empire, represented a peaceful settlement action by Constans, that of Franks in Toxandria in the 340s AD. The emperor's valorous crossing of the English Canal mid-winter explains the ship scene. The legend ''BONONIA OCEANEN(SIS), a reference to Boulogne-sur-Mer, the place of Constans departure. or merely depicting the emperor steering the State to a better future. The Phoenix had a long history in Imperial Rome and represented eternity of the emperor.

Fel Tempo Reparatio

Fallen Horseman on coins

The Galley on coins

Emperor and two captives on coins

Phoenix on coins

Wodeyer dynasty of Mysore and Coins

 

The Wadiyar (alternatively spelt Wodeyer or Odeyer) dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 AD to 1950, with an interruption. They were a feudatory house under the Vijayanagar Emperor, took advantage of the weakening of Vijayanagar Empire and became free. Raja Odeyar, secured Srirangapatna in 1610, which was the seat of the Vijayanagar Viceroy.

                                           

Mysore, Pagoda, Wodeyar, 1810-1868

The word ''Wadiyar'' in Kannada means ''Lord'' or ''Lordship''. Historic records use the term ''Wodeyar'' when referring to the dynasty's royal family members, the ''W'' is silent. The variation ''Odeyar'' is also used. The dynasty was established in 1399 by Yaduraya Wodeyar. He ruled Mysore under the Vijayanagar Empire until 1423. The kingdom remained fairly small during the early period, however after the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in 1565, the kingdom of Mysore became independent and remained so till 1799.

                                            

       Mysore Kingdom, 1784

                                           

                    Coat of Arms

               

                             

                  Flag of Mysore

Raja Wadiyar who ruled from 1578 to 1617, expanded the borders of the kingdom and in 1610, changed the capital city from Mysore to Srirangapatna. Later Kanthirava Narasaraja I, who ruled from 1638 to 1659 expanded the frontiers to Trichy in Tamil Nadu. The dynasty reached its peak under Chikka Devaraja,who ruled from 1673 to 1704, who reformed the administration by dividing it into 18 departments, called Chavadis.

                                           

Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar, 1673-1704

                                              

Kanthirava Narasaraja Wodeyar I, 1638-1659

A curse was believed to be cast on the Wadiyars in 1612 by Alamelamma, wife of King Tirumalaraja, who ruled the Vijayanagar Empire. Alamelamma was a widow and had a large amount of precious jewellery, including a fine nose ring studded with a large pearl. As a widow she was not permitted to wear any jewellery.  Raja Wadiyar sent his army to seize the jewellery by force. To escape the wrath of the Mysore army, Alamelamma jumped into a whirlpool in the river Kaveri uttering the legendary curse on Raja Wadiyar with the jewels and escaped.                                        

The curse as passed down in folklore over the last 400 years is ''Talakadu mara Lagali, Malangi Maduvagali, Mysuru Doregalige Makkallilade Hogali'' which translated to ''May Talakad turn into a barren expanse of sand, may Malangi turn into a whirlpool, may the Rajas of Mysore not have any children for all times to come.'' 

Raja Wadiyar, in his grief had an idol of Alamelamma made in gold, installed it in the Mysore Palace and worshipped it as a deity, a tradition carried out till date. The Dasara festivities inside the palace end on the evening of Navarathri with a pooja to Alamelamma before celebrating Dussehra. For these nine days the royal couple are required to stay inside the palace, another interesting part of the story is that the Alamelamma temple is under the care of the legal heirs of the Alamelamma, who live inside the palace. On the night of Dussehra, the Mysore Palace is truly a breathtaking sight with dazzling 100,000 light bulbs illuminating the palace.

                                         

                 The Mysore Palace

                                           

The Mysore Palace illuminated on Dussehra.

Strangely, these priests/caretakers appear to be cursed and do not beget children and follow the same pattern afflicting the Wodeyars. The curse came true as successive kings adopted their nephews or cousins to take over the throne. Talakad is still a vast expanse of sand with the temples buried, and at Malangi, the river is the deepest. 

                                             

                    Mysore Map 1704

Islamic Rule. From 1760 to 1799, the rule of the dynasty was essentially nominal, with real power given in the hands of the ''dalwai'', or commander-in-chief, Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, who expanded the kingdom, but clashed with the British. After Tipu Sultan was killed in the Battle of Srirangapatna in 1799, the Wodiyars were restored to a reduced kingdom.

                                             

Badshah, Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Tipu

 

British Rule. The capital was shifted to Mysore. In 1831, commissioners were appointed to be in charge of the kingdom. In 1881, the transfer of power back to the Wodiyars heralded an important phase in the making of modern Mysore. Mysore became the cultural center of Karnataka.

The last king of the dynasty was Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar, who ruled from 1940 until independence, but continued as Maharaja till 1950. He became Raja Pramukh, head of Mysore State from 1950-1956, and Governor of the present Karnataka State in 1956 till 1964. Then he was Governor of Madras state for two years. The Maharaja died in 1974.

                                             

Maharaja Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar with Elizabeth II of Britain

Coins of Mysore

                                         

Kingdom of Mysore, 1674-1760, One Kasu, copper, weight 3.1 g, Obverse: Goddess Laxmi seated, Reverse: Intersecting parallel lines with ''W'' like symbol.

                                             

Kingdom of Mysore, Odeyars, 1782-1799, One Kasu, copper, weight 2.7g, Obverse: Elephant left, Kanarese number 1 above, Reverse: Dots and double lines.

 

                                             

Kingdom of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, half paisa, 1791- 1794, copper, weight 5.5 g, Obverse: Elephant left with tail raised, date above AH 1223, Reverse: mint name, zarb patan

                                               

Kingdom of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, 1778-1793, One paisa, copper, weight 11.1 g, Obverse: Elephant left with tail raised, AH 1217, Reverse: mint name zarb nagar 

  

                                               

Kingdom of Mysore, One fanam, gold, 1783-1786, weight 0.3 g, Obverse: Persian ''He'', Reverse: AH 1198, lettering zarb nagar

                                              

Kingdom of Mysore, Tipu Sultan,1786-1794, Rupee, silver, weight 11.6 g,  

                                               

Kingdom of Mysore, Pagoda, Haider Ali, 1761-1782, Rupee, weight 3,4 g, Obverse: God Shiva with Parvati seated facing straight with Trishul (Trident) in hand, Reverse: Persian letter ''He'' (for Haider Ali) in a granulated background.

                                                

Kingdom of Mysore, Haider Ali, 1761-1782, One fanam, gold, weight 0.3 g, Obverse: A degenerated Kali, Reverse: Dots with a Persian letter ''Ha''

                                                

'Kingdom of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, 1798, One paisa, copper, weight 10.8 g, 

                                               

  

Princely state of Mysore, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, 1811-1813, Five Cash, copper, Obverse: Elephant below Kanarese ''Sri'' between sun and moon, legend ''Sri'', Reverse: 3 lines Kanarese legend, ''V Cash'' denomination in English at the bottom.

                                                

    

Princely state of Mysore, Krishnaraja Wadiyar III, 1/12 Rupee, silver, weight 0.9 g, Obverse: Dancing figure of Bal Krishana with a butter ball in his hand, Reverse: Kannada legend in three lines, translation Mayli Hana

                                                  

Princely state of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wodeyar, 1810-1868, One Pagoda, gold, weight 3.4 g, Obverse: Lord Shiva seated, holding his attributes of a trident and a deer, with his consort Parvati seated on his lap, sun and moon above, Reverse: Three lines devanagari legend; sri/krishna ra/ ja.

Wodeyar Dynasty

Coins of Mysore

Alamelamma

Talakad