Monday, May 31, 2021

Trade Dollars and their emergence from the Spanish Dollar (piece of eight) 1497 AD


Trade dollars are silver coins minted as trade coins by few countries to facilitate trade with the ''Orient''. They all approximated in weight and fineness to the Spanish dollar, which had set the standard for a de facto common currency for trade in the Far East.

                                          

                         British Trade Dollar 

Spanish Dollar. The existence of trade dollars came about because of the popularity of the silver Spanish dollar in the Far East, such as in China, East Asia and the East Indies. Following the establishment of Spanish Philippines as part of the Spanish East Indies, Manila became an entrepot for Chinese goods in one direction and Spanish silver dollar, from across the Pacific to the Spanish held mints and silver mines of Mexico, Peru and Bolivia in the other. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, led from the 16th century onwards to the wide circulation of ''piece of eight'' as a standard of trade. The official Spanish name for the ''pieces of eight'' was the Reale De a Ocho, Eight Reales, as a ''piece of eight'' was worth eight reals. 

                                             

Spanish Silver Dollar after 1497, weight 25.56 g, 0.93 fineness silver
Obverse: Ferdinand and Elisabeth by the Grace of God, displays the arms of the Catholic Monarchs post 1492, with Granada in base. Letter S on the left is the sign of the mint of Seville and VIII on the right in roman numerals.
Reverse: King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, displays the emblem of the monarch, Ferdinand's arrow and Isabella's yoke

This was widely used as the first international currency because of its uniformity in standard and milling characteristics. Some countries countermarked the Spanish dollar to be used as their local currency. It remained a legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. Several other currencies such as the Canadian dollar, the Japanese yen, the Chinese yuan, the Philippine peso and several other currencies were based on the Spanish dollar.

Infact the symbol of the Dollar ($) supposedly grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation pS for pesos. The ''s'' gradually came to be written over the ''p'' developing into the ''$''. mark

                         

                 Emergence of the Dollar symbol 
    

China. The high regard in which these coins came to be held, led to the minting of the silver Chinese yuan, a coin designed to resemble the Spanish one. These Chinese ''dragon dollars'' not only circulated in China, but together with original coins of Spanish-Mexican origin became the preferred currency of trade between China and its neighbours.

                                               

China, Trade Dollar, 1911, weight 26.9 g
Obverse: legend Hsuan-túng, inscription Tai-chíng Yin-pi
Reverse: Dragon

 This continued till the late half of the 19th century. These would weigh 27.2 g and fineness .900. 


France. To control the money supply in French Indochina in 1885, the French introduced a new silver Piastre de commerce and associated subsidiary coinage throughout the Indo-Chinese colonies in order to increase monetary stability.

                                            

French Cochin China (Vietnam), 1885, Piastre, silver, weight 21.2 g
Obverse: Liberty seated left with fasces, French Republic
Reverse: Denomination in wreath

The piastre was initially equivalent to the Mexican peso. The piastre was therefore a direct lineal descendent of the Spanish ''pieces of eight.''


Japan. The Japanese Trade Dollar, issued from 1875 to 1877 was identical in design to the trade dollar except it had 26.96 g of silver. The majority of the trade dollars were counter stamped with the character ''gin'' (Japanese for silver). The Osaka mint placed the mark on the left side of the reverse, the Tokyo mint on the right. The coins were then released for use in Japanese-occupied Taiwan, Korea and Lushunkou.

                                             

Japan Trade Dollar, Meiji counter stamped, 1875 AD, from Heritage auctions, 


                                           

Japan Trade Dollar, 1875-1877 AD, silver, weight 27.2 g
Obverse: Dragon within beaded circle, legends above
Reverse: Chrysanthemum flower, coat of arms and Emperor's Royal seal
 

United Kingdom. With the extension of British trading interests in the East, especially after the founding of Singapore in 1819 and Hong Kong in 1842, it became necessary to produce a special Dollar so as to remove the reliance of a British colony upon the various foreign coins then in circulation. These Trade Dollars, minted exclusively for use in the Far East, depict Britannia standing on shore. holding a trident in one hand and balancing a British shield in the other, with a merchant ship under full sail in the background. On the reverse is an arabesque design with the Chinese symbol of longevity in the center, and the denomination in two languages, Chinese and Jawi Malay.

                                           

British Trade Dollar, 1934 AD, weight 26.9g
Obverse: Standing figure of Britannia holding trident and shield with merchant ship in background, date
 Reverse: Chinese characters and Jawi script translated to one dollar and one Ringget. 

                                           

                 Bombay mintmark in the trident
  

The British Trade Dollar was minted from 1895 for Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements. But after the Straits dollar was introduced to the Straits Settlements in 1903, it became exclusively a Hong Kong coin produced till 1935. Those with Mint mark ''B'' were produced in the Bombay mint, others marked ''C'' were struck in Calcutta. Those with no mint marks were produced in London. Mint mark ''C'' can be found in the ground between the left foot of Britannia and base of the shield, while mintmark ''B'' is located in the center prong of the Trident.


United States. The trade dollar was issued from 1873 to 1885 from mints at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Carson City and San Francisco.

                                             

United States Trade Dollar, 1873-1885, weight 27.22 g
Obverse: Liberty seated on a pedestal facing the sea to the left holding olive branches surrounded by 13 stars
Reverse: An eagle holding branches with berries on them and arrows.

 Business strike trade dollars were last produced in 1878 and proof coin production continued till 1885. The trade dollar was meant to improve trade with the Orient, China in particular.



Trade Dollar

Piece of Eight

Saturday, May 29, 2021

King Godophares I , the Indo-Parthian ruler of Northern India, the Indian Biblical connect ? and Coins

 

During the time of the Saka or the Indo-Scythians, in Northwest India, there was an Indo-Parthian (Persian) kingdom which ruled from 19 BC to around 225 AD. The kingdom was founded by Gondopharid dynasty, and they ruled an area stretching from Eastern Iran, parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the Indian Subcontinent, comprising of Gandhara, Sindh and western Punjab.

                                            

                                   Coin of Gondophares

                                                                                        

           Map showing the Indo-Parthian kingdom.
    

The founder of the dynasty, Gondophares I, (who ruled from 19 AD to 47 AD) belonged to the royal house of Suren, the highest of the five premier families of the Arsacid (Parthian) empire in Iran. Around 19-20 AD, king Gondophares I defeated the Sakas and captured much of their territories, all the way till Mathura. The empire had its capital at Taxila, where a number of Parthian monuments have been found.

                                                 

Ruins of a Zoroastrian fire temple of the Indo-Parthians at Jandial
 

The famous UNESCO World Heritage Buddhist monastery complex of ''Takht-i-Bahi'' in the Mardan region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It was first a Zoroastrian complex which, after the arrival of Buddhism, was converted to a monastery in the 1st century BC. Gondophares as a king, was established by 20 AD as is given in the rock inscription he set up there.

                                          

Takht I Bahi, literally meaning ''spring or well on a high surface''. The spring of that period still exists on the western hill and is used by the locals. The sanctuary and nearby village was named after these wells. They are scattered over 32.9 hectares. The site was excavated by Dr D.B Spooner and Mr Hargreaves in 1907-09 and 1910-11 respectively. The remains consist of main stupa, votive stupas, court, lofty chapels, monastic quadrangle, meditation cells, covered passages and other buildings. They are stone built laid in lime and mud mortar

What is interesting about King Gondophares is his possible Biblical connection with the birth of Jesus Christ and the visit of St Thomas, the Apostle to India.

 The third century AD Aramaic text from Syria, ''The Apocryphal Acts of Thomas'', mentions one King ''Gudnaphar'', in whose court St Thomas arrived. Experts and historians believe that ''Gondophares'' is the Greek version of ''Gudnaphar'' which was translated as ''Gastaphar'' in the Armenian language and ''Casper'' in Western language.

In 2:1 (first verse of the second chapter) of the Gospel of Mathew in the New Testament describes the birth of Jesus Christ and mentions the ''magi'' that came from the east. Popularly known as the ''three wise men''. These wise men have been described in a Greek manuscript probably composed in Alexandria around 500 AD as Melchior, a Persian King and scholar, Balthazar, a Babylonian scholar or King of Arabia and Gaspar (also called ''Çaspar'' or ''Jaspar'') from India. While we are not absolutely sure whether ''Caspar'' or ''Gastaphar'' ever did visit Bethlehem, we do know of Gondophares was known and referred to as Gastaphar or Caspar.

                                           

The three magi (Balthasar, Caspar, Melchior). The Hortus Deliciarum, made at the Hohenburg Abbey, France 1185 AD by Herrad of Landsberg
 

Further, it is interesting to note, that in medieval Christian texts, like ''Historia Trium Regum'' (History of the Three Kings) by John of Hildesheim (1364-1375), the name of ''King Caspar's kingdom'' has been mentioned as ''Egrisilla". Egrissilla has been referred to on a globe made in Nuremberg by German Cartographer Martin Behaim in 1492. It is believed that ''Egrisilla'' could be a corruption of the word ''Takshashilla'' or ''Taxila'', the capital of Gondophares.

St Thomas's travels in India are found in ''The Apocryphal Acts of St Thomas'', where he travelled to north India, to the court of King Gondophares, then down the Indus River from his capital Taxila to the island of Socotra (modern day Yemen), from where he left for south India, landing at the port of Muzris in Kerala, along the Malabar coast in 52 AD and so spread Christianity in India.

                                                     

 Gondophares receives a letter from St Thomas

                                              

 Saint Thomas the Apostle, Diego Velazquez 1619
      

 He was martyred in Mylapore, near Madras in AD 72. In AD 232, the greater portion of relics of the Apostle Thomas are said to have been sent to the city of Edessa, Mesopotamia.

                                                 

The tomb of St Thomas the Apostle, Basilica, Chennai
 

For centuries, the story of St Thomas in the court of Gondophares was dismissed as a myth. However, since 1834, with the emergence of numismatic evidence which shows that there was indeed a King Gondophares and there is evidence (in the form of coins) to show he was a contemporary of St Thomas, from the legends. 

The accounts of a Greek philosopher, Apollonius of Tyana, who visited  Gondophares court in 44 AD (four years after St Thomas in 40 AD), have led experts to believe that there was active cultural exchange between Taxila and the western world. Apollonius writes of a Greek-style city and that the king spoke fluent Greek.

Coins of Gondophares I.

                                            

Gondophares, 20-25 AD, Drachm, silver, weight 3.7 g, Province of Sakastan
Obverse: Indo-Parthian bust of Gondophares
Reverse: King enthroned right, crowned by winged Nike standing behind throne

                                             

Gondophares, 30-55 AD, Drachm, billon, weight 9.9 g, Taxila mint
Obverse: King holding whip, mounted on horse walking right, Tamgha symbol in front
Reverse: Zeus standing right, holding upright scepter, right arm outstretched

                                             

Gondophares, 42-55 AD, Drachm, billon, weight 6.36 g, Province of Chach

Obverse: King mounted on horse standing left, winged Nike standing in front, crowing him with wreath

Reverse: Tamgha  Symbol


                                               
Gondophares, 30-55 AD, Drachm, billon, weight 2.3 g, Province of Jammu
Obverse: Diademed head of king right
Reverse: Pallas standing right, holding thunderbolt and shield

                                                
Gondophares with Maharaja Gadana, 25-35 AD, Drachm, billon, weight 8.5 g, Province of Arachosia
Obverse: Bearded bust left
Reverse: winged Nike standing right with wreath and palm, Karosthi legend 

                                              

Gondophares, 30-55 AD, Tetradrachm, silver, weight 9.9 g, Province of Chach

Obverse: King holding whip, mounted on horse walking right
Reverse: Shiva standing facing, holding trident in left hand and right arm outstretched



Thursday, May 27, 2021

Jaisalmer Princely State and Coins

 


The state of Jaisalmer had its foundations in what remains of the Empire ruled by the Bhati dynasty. Early Bhati rulers ruled over large empire stretching from Ghazni in modern day Afghanistan to Sialkot, Lahore and Rawalpindi in modern day Pakistan, to Bhatinda, Muktsar and Hanumangarh in India. The empire crumbled over time because of continuous invasions from central Asia. 

Bhati dominions continued to shift towards the south and finally got pushed into Cholistan and Jaisalmer where Rawal Devaraja built Dera Rawal/ Derawar. Jaisalmer was the new capital founded in 1156 by Maharawal Jaisal Singh and the state took its name from the capital.

 On 11th December 1818 Jaisalmer became a British protectorate in the Rajputana Agency.

                                

               One Rupee coin of Jaisalmer state

                                            


                                           

          Maharawal Jaisal Singh, Jaisalmer Fort


Map of Jaisalmer State with the duchies of Satto, Pithala, Loharki, Lakhmana, Didhu, Kanod, Tota, Bhadariya and Nachna

                                           

 Royal standard of Jaisalmer Princely State

                                          

    Flag of Jaisalmer over the Jaisalmer Fort

Traditionally, in the Middle Ages, the main source of income for the kingdom was levies on caravans, but the economy was heavily affected when Bombay emerged as a major port and sea trade replaced the traditional land routes. 

Maharawals Ranjit Singh and Bairi Sal Singh attempted to turn around the economic decline but could not. A severe drought from 1895 to 1900 made matters worse.

Popularly known as the " Golden City'' owing to the yellow sandstone structures and the gold-coloured desert surrounding it.

Several attempts to modernize by Maharaja Jawahir Singh (1914-1949) were not entirely successful, although some infrastructure development for storage of water, health and sanitation was developed.

After the departure of the British in 1947, the Maharawal signed an instrument of Accession to the Union of India while retaining some internal autonomy until the 1950s. Even now, it is the largest district of Rajasthan with 38,401 square kilometer area and having an international border of 471 km.   

Historic Sites in Jaisalmer

Akal Wood Fossil Park , Jaisalmer


               Signboards of Akal Wood Fossil Park

The 21-hectare preserved area of the park about 17 km from Jaisalmer, is packed with 180 million years old history. The discovery of wood fossils researched and believed to have been submerged below the ocean generated a lot of interest in geologists, botanist and scientists that led to the area being stripped clean of wood fossils over decades. 

                                                 

                                    Wood Fossils

Now what remains are countable numbers lying under corrugated iron shelters, caged in the desolate desert.

                                           

             Wood Fossils in caged iron shelters

Jaisalmer Fort. It was built in 1156 AD by Rao Jaisal and is popularly known as "Sone Ka Quila'' or Golden Fort. 

                                              

                              Jaisalmer Fort

Standing proudly in the middle of the golden sands, it is one of the only fort that has people staying there now for centuries. It is 460 meters long, 230 meters wide having a basement wall that is 4.6 meters tall forming a double line of defense.


Gadisar Lake. It was built by the founder of Jaisalmer, Rawal Jaisal in 1156 AD, and later rebuilt by Gadsi Singh around 1367 AD. It is an artificial lake.

                                           

                                  Gadisar Lake

Patwon ki Haveli. The first Haveli was built in1805 by a wealthy trader in the city called Ghuman Chand Patwa and it took about 55 years to build as he decided to build 5 Haveli's around the complex, one each for his five sons.

                                       

                                 Patwa Haveli
  

Nathmal ki Haveli. Built in the late 19th century by two jeweler brothers by starting work on two opposite sides of the building which resulted in a similar but not identical right and left side. 

                                                

                              Nathmal Haveli

Salim Singh ki Haveli. Built in 1815 and commissioned by Salim Singh the then Prime Minister of the kingdom.

                                           

                              Salim Singh Haveli

Kudhara. A village close to Jaisalmer, now in ruins. As per the story there, Salim Singh who was one of the ministers in Jaisalmer, had an eye on a girl in Kuldhara, a settlement of Paliwal Brahmins. He gave the entire village an ultimatum that either they hand over the girl to him or be ready to face the consequences. Instead of handing over the girl, the entire settlement of over 83 villages disappeared. while leaving they cast a curse on the village that none would be able to reside there.  

                                           

                   Kuldhara, the village in ruins 
  

                                           

  Devali script on Cenotaph at Kuldhara village

Coins of Jaisalmer

                                       

Jaisalmer State, 1/2 Rupee, Ranjit Singh,1860 AD, silver, weight 5.23 g
Obverse: Legend in urdu, " Malikah Mu'azzam rafi ud darjat meaning Victoria farman rawai, nagari numerals 17 on obverse refer to Vikrama Samvat 1917 ie AD 1860
Reverse: legend in urdu, "dar al riyasat Jaisalmer/ maimanat manus jalus 22 ie regnal year, bird the mintmark of Princely state of Jaisalmer 

                                             

Jaisalmer, Ranjit Singh in the name of Queen Victoria, weight 11.4 g

Obverse: Legend in urdu " Malikah Mu'azzam rafi ud darjat meaning Victoria farman rawai,

Reverse: legend in urdu, "dar al riyasat Jaisalmer/ maimanat manus jalus 22 ie regnal year,


                                             

One Rupee, Muhammad Shah, silver, AH 115X, weight 11.3 g, Reverse: Sana julus zarb RY 22 (frozen), Akhey Shahi series

                                              

One Rupee, Ranjit Singh, 1756 AD, silver, weight 10.9 g, dia 20 mm, thickness 3.9mm, RY 22




Sunday, May 16, 2021

Murud-Janjira: the unsung legacy of the Siddis (invincible fort off the Konkan coast) and Coins

 

Janjira State was located on the Konkan coast in the present day Raigarh district of Maharashtra. The state included the towns of Murud and Shrivardhan as well as the fortified island of Murud-Janjira, off the coastal village of Murud, which was the capital and residence of the rulers. The word Janjira originated from the Arabic word Jazeera, which means Island.  The word "Murud" is derived from a Konkani word "Morod".

                                                 

       Location of Janjira State on the map of India

                 

                                           

Location of the Murud Janjira Fort on the Island


Siddi territory was represented by a red flag with a crescent moon and a star on it.

                                           

                     The flag of Janjira State
                                     

                                           
                            Coat of Arms Janjira

Since pre-historic period, Konkan came under control of various empires and rulers. The region came under the Magadha Empire, the Maurya dynasty, Satavahanas, Traikutas, Kalchuris, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Kadambas and lastly Yadavas of Devagiri. In 1296 AD, the region came under the Delhi Sultanate which in 1347 passed into the hands of Allauddin Bahaman Shah who laid the foundation of Bahamani Kingdom. The Deccan rulers stabilized their rule taking support of migrants from Africa. Malik Ambar, the king maker of Ahmednagar made alliance with the Siddis and installed them as rulers of Murad-Janjira.

The first Siddis (Abyssinian Muslims) are thought to have arrived in India in 628 AD at Bharuch port. The latter groups are believed to have been soldiers of Muhammad bin Qasim's army, and were called Zanjis. Later the Siddi population was increased by Bantu people from Southeast Africa who were brought by the Portuguese as slaves.   

In the 15th century, the western coast of Maharashtra used to be frequently attacked by Arab, Turks and sea pirates. A local Maratha fisherman, Rajaram Patil constructed a fort of wooden logs on this island known as Medhekot. He slowly grew in strength and started to disobey the Nizammshahi. He was captured and killed by Piram Khan who was a commander of Ahmed Nizamshah. Piram Khan (1526-1532) was succeeded by Burhan Khan as "Subedar of Janjira". Burhan commissioned the construction of a fort on the Janjira Island as per the directions of Hussein Nizamshah and was completed in 1571. It was known as "Fort Mehrub" (Moon Island) now called as Janjira fort.

                                               

                       The Murud Janjira Fort
                                                 

In the centuries that followed, the rulers put themselves under the overlordship of the Sultanate of Bijapur. During the 17th and 18th century Janjira successfully resisted the repeated attacks of the Maratha Empire.

The  Murud-Janjira fort is situated on an oval- shaped island about 2 km off the coast and is considered as the strongest marine forts in India that remained unconquered. It is made up of black rocks that had been evenly cut as blocks.  The Nizamshahis, Maratha, Portuguese, Dutch, French and even the English could never subdue this fort. The Siddis were allied with the Mughal Empire.  

                                               

 Aerial view of the Fort with the angled gateway and the two freshwater ponds
 

The fort housed a mint too. The main entrance of the fort is not visible from any angle outside the fort because the gate is locked in an angular manner compressed between two bastions. The narrow gate is east facing and is visible only from 200 meters.

                                            

                    The Gateway of the Fort
      
                                       
                                            
The Tiger symbol on the inner wall of the Fort

On either side of the palace lie two freshwater ponds 

                      

                     Fresh water ponds in the Fort
   

                                           

                         The Fort walls.

It took 22 years to build this stronghold on 22 acres of land. The fort has 22 bastions at the peripheral walls. The height of the wall is about 40 feet, and its width is 12 feet. The parapet walls are two and a half feet in thickness. The fort wall and the bastions are three storied. There were 572 cannons in 1669 AD. Nowadays only 75 cannons are left. All three cannons in the center are forged welded. 

                                         

The imposing walls of the Fort that was never captured.

                                           
The Surulkhan Wada, the Palace used to be 7 storied, now only 3 and a half stories left.

                                           
From left to right: Landa Kasam, Chawari and Kalal Bangadi, the three cannons.
                                  
                                         

They maintained a strong navy comprising of several Ghurabs, Gallivats, Frigates and mast war ships. They specialised in guerilla warfare which made them masters of Western Konkan coast. Their power and influence were such that various ruling empires such as Adilshahi and Mughal hired them at their services. Siddis came under the direct services of Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb when Bijapur Adilshahi was annexed by him. It was a princely state under the Bombay Presidency.   

Initially the rulers of the state held the title of "Wazir", but after 1803 the title of "Nawab" was officially recognized by the British

The fort still stands and is a tourist place.

Coins of Janjira

                                         

Siddi Ibrahim Khan III, paisa, copper, weight 6 gm
 

                                           

Janjira, Siddi Ibrahim Khan, Paisa, 1826-1828, copper, weight 6.7 gm
Obverse: Alamgir Badshah Ghazi
Reverse: Siddi Muhammad Khan Fidwi


                                             

Janjira, paisa, 1787 AD, copper, weight 6.9 g

                                              

Janjira, Siddi Ibrahim Khan II, 1803-1825 AD, Rupee, weight 11.1 g, with a sideways engraved Nagari letter "J" added on the reverse, above the "J" of jalus.
                                 

                                              

Janjira, Siddi Ibrahim Khan II, 1803-1825, Rupee, weight 11.1 g, countermark Nagari letter "J" on the reverse of an ankusi rupee of Poona



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